Zombies = Skeletal ??

Conclusion and References

CONCLUSION

Skeletal system is important for human. However, “the human body is not designed to

last forever” (Weber, Z., and Prof. Ying, S., 2005),bone fractures may occur in sometimes on a normal person caused by some accidents or bone defects that born with affect a person’s life. Therefore, artificial bones are used to solve these problems. Artificial bones play an important role in bone grafting. It is used to replace the bones that are fractured in order to perform normally in daily life. Although artificial bones may have some impacts on human body, but they can help a lot of people in order to achieve their goal and fulfill one’s dream.

REFERENCEs 

Research Journals :

1. Bruyere, O., De Cock, C., Mottet, C., Neuprez, A., Malaise, O., and Reginster, J.Y. 2008. Low dietary calcium in European postmenopausal osteoporotic women. Public Health Nutr ; 1-4.

2. Cranney, A., Horsley, T., O'Donnell, S. and Weiler, H. Effectiveness and safety of vitamin D in relation to bone health. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment Number 158. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ).

3. Bundela, H., and Bajpai, A.K., 2008. Designing of hydroxyapatite-gelatin based porous matrix as

bone substitute: Correlation with biocompatibility aspects. eXPRESS Polymer Letters, 2 (3), 201–213. DOI: 10.3144/expresspolymlett.2008.25.

4. Park, J.C., Han, D.W., and Suh, H., 2000. A Bone Replaceable Artificial Bone Substitute: Morphological and Physiochemical Charaterizations. Yonsei Medical Journal, 41 (4), 468-476.

5. Zioupos, P., 2001. Ageing human bone: Factors affecting its biomechanical properties and the role of collagen. Journal of Biomaterials Applications, 15, 187–229.

6. Beaman, F.D., Bancroft, L.W., Peterson, J.J., and Kransdorf, M.J., 2006. Bone graft materials and synthetic substitutes. Radiologic Clinics of North America, 44, 451–461.

7. Damien, C.J., and Parsons, J.R., 1991. Bone graft and bone graft substitutes: A review of current technology and applications. Journal of Applied Biomaterials, 2, 187–208.

Books :

8. Tortora, G.J. & Derrickson, B. 2010. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. 8^th Ed. Asia: John   Wiley & Sons (Asia) Ptc Ltd, pg118-160. 

9. Fullick, A.Edexcel A2 Biology: student’s book. 2009. Pearson Education limited. Pg174-177.

10. Millican, C. & Barker, M. Longman Study Guides: GCSE Biology. 1997. UK: Copyright Licensing  Agency  Ltd. Pg56-57.

11. Eric, P.W., Raff, H., & Kevin, T.S. 2008. Human Physiology. 12th Ed. McGraw-Hill Companies. Pg 251-275.

Electronic Reference Materials :

12.  Bland, E. 2009. Discovery news : New artificial bone made of wood. Available from : <http://news.discovery.com/tech/artificial-bone-made-wood.html> [Accessed 20 May 2012].

13. Johnson Ferry, R.D., & Marietta, G.A. 1999. Artificial bone grafts : Pro osteon. Available from : <http://arthroscopy.com/sp12013.htm> [Accessed 20 May 2012].

14. Hillendale Health, n.d., Skeletal System [Online]. Available from: <http://hes.ucfsd.org/gclaypo/skelweb/skel01.html> [Accessed 20 May 2012].

15. Weber, Z. & Prof. Ying, S. 2005.Artificial Bones [Online]. Available from: <http://www.ele.uri.edu/courses/ele282/F05/Zack_1.pdf> [Accessed 21 May 2012].

 

Our Facebook....

You can find games, quiz, puzzles, video and information for skeleton system at our facebook! Add us there, and chat with us!^^
 Click me

What happens to the skeletal system as we age?

Bone is living tissue that changes constantly. Old bone tissue dies and is replaced by new bone tissue. The human skeleton grows and strengthens until about the age of 18 in women and 21 in men. Bone mass, which is the amount of bone tissue in the skeleton, continues to grow until about the age of 30.After age 30, our bones become more porous as they lose mass. This process speeds up after age 50 and, for women, it intensifies during and after menopause.

• After the age of 30 our bones gradually deteriorate.
• The first few years after menopause, bone loss is especially rapid.
• Bone density decreases and bones become thinner and more fragile.



• Bones lose calcium and other minerals.
• Posture can become progressively hunched over as the spinal vertebrae and the discs between them become thinner and compressed due to loss of minerals and moisture.

• Joints may become inflamed and less flexible as fluid in joints decrease and cartilage erodes. This is especially common in knee and hip joints.
• Joints can become stiff due to mineral deposits (bone calcification), common in the shoulders.
• Movement slows down and may become limited and unstable.
• Risk of injury increases due to a combination of instability and brittle bone.

Bone mass begins to reduce between the ages of 30 and 40. Osteoblast activity (bone production) begins to decline, while osteoclast activity (bone reabsorption) continues at a normal level. Once reduction begins, women lose roughly 8% of their skeletal mass, but not all parts of the skeleton are equally affected.

Epiphyses (the head of the long bones), vertebrae, and the jaws reduce at a faster rate, resulting in more fragile limbs, weight reduction, and tooth loss.

The difference between normal osteopenia and the clinical condition of osteoporosis is simply a matter of degree. Because of changes in hormones, blood cell production, bone marrow content, and other aspects, bones become more fragile, breaking easily and not repairing well. Vertebrae may collapse, distorting the vertebral articulations and putting more pressure on spinal nerves, causing more pain. Dietary changes to elevate calcium levels, hormone therapies, and exercise slow, but do not prevent, the development of osteoporosis.

Chondrocytes produce a slightly different form of gelatinous compound making up the cartilage matrix. This causes increased stiffness and thickness of the joints.

How to prevent skeletal problems

Nutrition - A diet rich in calcium, magnesium and vitamin D is important for maintaining healthy, strong bones. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the following daily calcium intake for women past the menopause and men over the age of 65: at least 1,300 mg per day but not more than 3,000 mg.The WHO's recommended daily intake of vitamin D from the diet is 400 IU for people who are 50 years or older and 600 IU for people over 65. (Cranney, A., & et al )Follow a healthy diet plan that includes all the food groups. Fruits and vegetables are just as important for building strong bones as dairy products. Avoid processed foods.  

Regular Exercise – Exercise helps increase bone density at every age. The best exercise for strengthening bones is weight bearing exercise, also referred to as weight training or strength training. Stretching is very important to help maintain flexibility.

Cases study

Bone fracture

A 32 year old male fell off his bike and sustained a fracture to his leg bone (Tibia). His fracture had multiple pieces and his bone was plated (see post op x-ray).

Artificial bone is now available and was used to fill defects in his bone. He was without any plaster from day one! He walked with crutches till the fracture union. His complex fracture united in 3 months (see final X-ray) .

But what is important is that he regained his full function in 3 months. You can see him sitting cross legged 3 months down the line and his video shows clearly how his knee bends!

Stanford surgeons put artificial bone in 3-year-old's arm

Surgeons at Stanford University's Lucille Packard Children's Hospital have implanted a telescoping artificial prosthesis in the arm of a 3-year-old to replace a humerus that was removed because of cancer. Nearly a year later, now-4-year-old Mark Blinder is thriving and cancer-free.

Mark began developing pain in his arm, oncologists had diagnosed Ewing's sarcoma, a rare bone tumor. Chemotherapy reduced the pain, but did not completely destroy the tumor. Radiation could have been used, but that would have destroyed the growth plates in the bone, producing a physical impairment as he grew. 

The other common alternative was amputation.

Orthopedic surgeon Dr. Lawrence Rinsky of Stanford convinced parents Alla Ostrovskaya and Gene Blinder to consider a third option, an artificial bone. The titanium/cobalt chrome expandable bone designed specifically for Mark was much rarer, spokesman Bill Kolter said.

4-year-old Mark Blinder received an artificial, expandable bone to replace a humerus removed during cancer surgery.

The prosthetic bone had to be small enough to fit in a 3-year-old's arm, durable enough to last a lifetime and expandable to allow for Mark's growth. Most artificial bones, furthermore, are used to replace only part of a bone, so they are glued securely to remaining bones. In Mark's case, the entire humerus was removed, so the prosthetic had to be attached to soft tissue.

Once the old bone was removed, Rinsky implanted the artificial bone, sewing a piece of Dacron fabric attached to the top to soft tissue in Mark's shoulder. At the elbow, Rinsky saved the ligaments and placed them around the prosthetic as best he could.

Subsequent studies showed that the tumor was entirely removed. Mark spent a month recuperating from the surgery, then received more chemotherapy as a safety measure. He will have three to four minor surgeries over the next few years in which Rinsky will make a minor incision in the shoulder and use a few turns of a screwdriver to lengthen the implant.

Mark is gradually relearning how to use his arm. He's moving the right wrist and fingers, can pick up small objects, and is receiving physiotherapy to rebuild strength and flexibility in the elbow and shoulder. He won't ever regain full function in those joints, but he is using the arm more each day, his mother said. Mark often tells his family, "I have a special arm."

An X-ray of the prosthetic

What is Artificial Bone?

Artificial bone refers to bone-like material created in a laboratory that can be used in bone grafts, to replace human bone that was lost due to severe fractures and disease. (Johnson Ferry, R.D., and Marietta, G.A. , 1999).

Synthetic HYDROXYAPATITE

Hydroxyapatite has the chemical formula Ca₅(PO₄)₃(OH). It's a natural forming minerals produced by calcium and phosphate minerals. It is a major component in bones and teeth.

Most artificial bones nowadays are made from hydroxyapatite, which has the same chemical formula as bone itself. Synthetic hydroxyapatite, however, is neither as porous as real bone nor as strong.
Pores are important :

·         They are conduits for blood flow (blood is generated in bone marrow) and they allow bones to be strong without being too heavy.

·         Pores also provide a way for living bone to attach itself permanently to an implant.

 
Sea carol
It is porous but lack of strength. Sea coral is mostly used for cranial restructuring.

CERAMICS 
Possible to synthesize ceramic materials with the right combination of strength and inter-connected pores to mimic real bone.

Ceramic particles made of calcium phosphate act like signaling beacons to attract stem cells and growth factors to the site of an artificial bone graft.

One of the most promising ceramics starts as a powdery mixture of calcium and phosphate compounds (CaO and P₂O₅). Ignite the mixture, which burns at 2600 C. CaO and P₂O₅ react to produce tricalcium phosphate (Ca₃(PO₄)₂), a substance remarkably similar (chemically) to real bone. The reaction also yields heat and gaseous by-products that naturally form bubbly pores.

New Invention : WOOD Artificial Bone 
Wood-derived bone substitute should allow live bones to heal faster and more securely after a break than currently available metal and ceramic implants.

The researchers chose wood because it closely resemble the physical structure of natural bone

To create the bone substitute, the scientists start with a block of wood -- red oak, rattan and sipo work best -- and heat it until all that remains is pure carbon, which is basically charcoal.

The scientists then spray calcium over the carbon, creating calcium carbide. Additional chemical and physical steps convert the calcium carbide into carbonated hydroxyapatite, which can then be implanted and serves as the artificial bone.

The entire process takes about one week and costs about $850 for a single block. One block translates to about one bone implant. They can create virtually any size or shape.

Wood-based implants would have several advantages over traditional titanium or ceramic implants.

Since their physical structure is more spongy than solid, like many metal or ceramic implants, live bone should grow into wood-derived bone substitute quicker and more securely.

One disadvantage of titanium is that its not bioactive. This means that titanium is unable to interact with living tissue, unlike the wood-derived substitute.

Softer wooden implants might cause fewer bone breaks.

However, wood-derived bone substitute are still not cleared for use in humans. The scientists are currently limited to sheep.